Paediatric pain: Overview

Abstract
Background: Pharmacokinetics (PK), efficacy, and safety of the opioid analgesic tapentadol in the treatment of moderate-to-severe acute pain have so far not been investigated in pediatric patients <2 years of age.

Patients and methods: Two multicenter, open-label trials assessed the pharmacokinetic profile, safety, tolerability, and efficacy of single doses of tapentadol oral solution (OS; NCT02221674; n=19) or intravenous infusion (IV, EudraCT 2014-002259-24; n=38) in children from birth to <2 years of age. Of these, 8 preterm neonates were included in the IV trial. A third randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (NCT02081391) investigated the efficacy and safety of multiple tapentadol OS doses in patients from birth to <2 years (placebo n=4, tapentadol n=11) using an immediate rescue trial design. Patients in all three trials underwent surgery that, in the investigator's opinion, reliably produced moderate-to-severe pain requiring opioid treatment.

Results: Administration of single tapentadol doses resulted in tapentadol serum concentrations within the targeted range known to be safe and efficacious in adults and compared well to the range observed for children aged 2 to <18 years. Pain intensity already improved 15 min after administration. In the multiple dose trial, amounts of supplemental opioid analgesic medication within the first 24 h after start of trial medication were low (placebo 0.02 mg/kg, tapentadol 0.05 mg/kg). All patients stopped treatment with the trial medication because opioid analgesics were no longer required. Treatment-emergent adverse events occurred in 42.1% (tapentadol OS single dose), 28.9% (tapentadol IV), and 75% of placebo and 54.5% of tapentadol patients (tapentadol OS multiple doses), none of them serious.

Conclusion: Tapentadol showed a favorable PK and safety profile in children <2 years of age. Multiple tapentadol OS dosing is efficacious and generally well tolerated in children ≥2 years and might also be a useful treatment option for children <2 years in need of strong analgesics.

Abstract
This randomized, controlled trial evaluated whether a brief educational program (ie, Scenario-Tailored Opioid Messaging Program [STOMP]) would improve parental opioid risk knowledge, perceptions, and analgesic efficacy; ensure safe opioid use decisions; and impact prescription opioid use after surgery. Parent-child dyads (n = 604) who were prescribed an opioid for short-term use were randomized to routine instruction (Control) or routine plus STOMP administered preoperatively. Baseline and follow-up surveys assessed parents' awareness and perceived seriousness of adverse opioid effects, and their analgesic efficacy. Parents' decisions to give an opioid in hypothetical scenarios and total opioid doses they gave to children at home were assessed at follow-up. Scenario-Tailored Opioid Messaging Program parents gained enhanced perceptions of opioid-related risks over time, whereas Controls did not; however, risk perceptions did not differ between groups except for addiction risk. Scenario-Tailored Opioid Messaging Program parents exhibited marginally greater self-efficacy compared to Controls (mean difference vs controls = 0.58 [95% confidence interval 0.08-1.09], P = 0.023). Scenario-Tailored Opioid Messaging Program parents had a 53% lower odds of giving an opioid in an excessive sedation scenario (odds ratio 0.47 [95% confidence interval 0.28-0.78], P = 0.003), but otherwise made similar scenario-based opioid decisions. Scenario-Tailored Opioid Messaging Program was not associated with total opioid doses administered at home. Instead, parents' analgesic efficacy and pain-relief preferences explained 7%, whereas child and surgical factors explained 22% of the variance in opioid doses. Scenario-tailored education enhanced parents' opioid risk knowledge, perceptions, and scenario-based decision-making. Although this may inform later situation-specific decision-making, our research did not demonstrate an impact on total opioid dosing, which was primarily driven by surgical and child-related factors.

Abstract
Pain (eg, needle injections, injuries, and chronic pain) is highly prevalent in childhood and occurs in social contexts. Nevertheless, broader sociocultural influences on pediatric pain, such as popular media, have not been empirically examined. This study examined how pain is portrayed and gendered in children's popular media. A cross-section of children's media targeted towards 4- to 6-year-old children was selected based on popularity, including 10 movies and the first season of 6 television shows. Pain instances were extracted and coded using 2 established observational coding systems assessing sufferer pain characteristics and observer responses (eg, empathic responses). Findings identified 454 instances of pain across the selected media. Violent pain (ie, intentionally inflicted) and injuries were most commonly represented, whereas everyday, chronic-type, and procedural pains were infrequently portrayed. Pain instances were more commonly experienced by boy characters, who also expressed greater distress; yet, observers were more responsive (eg, expressed greater concern) towards girl characters' pain. Overall, observer responses to pain were infrequent, with observers witnessing but not responding to nearly half of pain instances. Observers who did respond expressed an overall lack of empathy towards sufferers. These findings reveal a very narrow depiction of pain presented in children's popular media, with an overall underrepresentation of pain, numerous maladaptive portrayals of pain, and gender differences in both sufferer and observer responses. This study underscores the need for further research to inform how children's popular media is perceived by parents and children and how media may be transformed and harnessed for effective pain education in childhood.