Regional anaesthesia: Overview

Keywords: Chronic Pain; Hip; Injections; Interventional; Intra-Articular; Osteoarthritis; PENG Block; Pain Management; Quality of Life; Steroids; Ultrasonography.

Keywords: Cesarean section; Intrathecal morphine; Postoperative analgesia; Severe pre-eclampsia; Transversus abdominis plane.

Abstract
Purpose of review: Due to increased interest in opioid-sparing multimodal analgesic strategies both inside and outside of the operating room, anaesthesiologists have started to look towards regional anaesthesia as well as nonpharmacological pain-reducing techniques. The purpose of this article is to discuss current trends and recent developments in regional anaesthesia and virtual reality for paediatric pain management.

Recent findings: The development of novel fascial plane blocks has expanded regional options for anaesthesiologists, especially when neuraxial anaesthesia is not a viable or straightforward option. Other regional techniques, such as spinal anaesthesia and continuous epidural analgesia for infants and neonates, are becoming more popular, as more paediatric anaesthesiologists become familiar with these techniques. Virtual reality for paediatric pain management is a relatively new area of study that has shown promise, but more research needs to be done before widespread adoption of this practice becomes a reality. Various preexisting pain-reducing strategies such as distraction and biofeedback are being integrated with virtual reality to help optimize its effect on pain and anxiety for paediatric patients.

Summary: Regional anaesthesia and virtual reality are valuable tools that serve to alleviate pain in paediatric patients. Advances are being made within both fields in various healthcare settings for different types of pain. Over the next few years, they will likely both play an increasing role in paediatric pain management.

Abstract
Background and objective: Surgical procedures involving incisions of the chest wall regularly pose challenges for intra- and postoperative analgesia. For many decades, opioids have been widely administered to target both, acute and subsequent chronic incisional pain. Opioids are potent and highly addictive drugs that can provide sufficient pain relief, but simultaneously cause unwanted effects ranging from nausea, vomiting and constipation to respiratory depression, sedation and even death. Multimodal analgesia consists of the administration of two or more medications or analgesia techniques that act by different mechanisms for providing analgesia. Thus, multimodal analgesia aims to improve pain relief while reducing opioid requirements and opioid-related side effects. Regional anesthesia techniques are an important component of this approach.

Methods: For this narrative review, authors summarized currently used regional anesthesia techniques and performed an extensive literature search to summarize specific current evidence. For this, related articles from January 1985 to March 2022 were taken from PubMed, Web of Science, Embase and Cochrane Library databases. Terms such as "pectoral nerve blocks", "serratus plane block", "erector spinae plane block" belonging to blocks used in thoracic surgery were searched in different combinations.

Key content and findings: Potential advantages of regional anesthesia as part of multimodal analgesia regiments are reduced surgical stress response, improved analgesia, reduced opioid consumption, reduced risk of postoperative nausea and vomiting, and early mobilization. Potential disadvantages include the possibility of bleeding related to regional anesthesia procedure (particularly epidural hematoma), dural puncture with subsequent dural headache, systemic hypotension, urine retention, allergic reactions, local anesthetic toxicity, injuries to organs including pneumothorax, and a relatively high failure especially with continuous techniques.

Conclusions: This narrative review summarizes regional anesthetic techniques, specific indications, and clinical considerations for patients undergoing thoracic surgery, with evidence from studies performed. However, there is a need for more studies comparing new block methods with standard methods so that clinical applications can increase patient satisfaction.